Movement disorders
You notice that moving is becoming increasingly difficult. Your hand trembles when you are sitting still, your muscles feel stiff, or you need more time to get up from a chair. You might notice that walking is becoming less effortless and that you sometimes feel as if your feet are stuck to the ground.
But Parkinson's disease causes much more than just movement problems.
Fatigue, concentration issues, sleep problems, a reduced sense of smell, anxiety, and depressive symptoms can also occur. Sometimes these symptoms are present even before the first clear movement problems arise.
Parkinson's disease is a progressive neurological condition in which the loss of dopamine-producing nerve cells disrupts the functioning of various brain networks.
These networks are involved not only in movement but also in attention, motivation, memory, and the regulation of various bodily functions.
Scientific research shows that the activity of these brain networks can be influenced using neuromodulation.
At BRAI3N, we use targeted neuromodulation to influence the activity of brain networks involved in both motor and cognitive Parkinson's symptoms.
With this, we aim to reduce certain symptoms and their impact on daily life.
Neuromodulation is a potential supplement to neurological treatment, medication, and specialized rehabilitation.
What is it?
What is Parkinson's disease?
Parkinson's disease is a chronic, progressive disorder of the nervous system.
In Parkinson's disease, nerve cells that produce dopamine are gradually lost. An important area where this occurs is thesubstantia nigra, a brain nucleus that works closely with the basal ganglia.
Dopamine is a chemical messenger that helps transmit signals between nerve cells.
Within motor brain networks, dopamine plays an important role in initiating, executing, and controlling movements.
When the amount of available dopamine decreases, the interaction between different brain regions changes.
As a result, movements can become slower, muscles can become stiffer, and automatic movement patterns can become more difficult to perform.
However, Parkinson's is more than just a dopamine deficiency.
Other neurotransmitters and brain networks can also be involved. This helps explain why the condition can cause cognitive, emotional, autonomic, and sleep-related symptoms in addition to motor problems.
What motor symptoms can occur?
1. Slowness of movement (bradykinesia)
Bradykinesia means that movements become slower and often smaller as well.
Daily activities such as getting dressed, writing, eating, or brushing your teeth may take more time as a result.
Some people notice that their handwriting becomes smaller or that it becomes more difficult to perform rapidly alternating movements.
Bradykinesia is one of the primary signs a neurologist looks for when making a diagnosis.
2. Muscle stiffness (rigidity)
With Parkinson's, muscles can feel constantly tense or stiff.
This can make movement difficult and sometimes cause pain.
Stiffness can occur in the arms, legs, shoulders, or torso.
Some patients notice that their arm does not swing as naturally while walking.
3. Tremor
A tremor is a rhythmic, involuntary movement, usually of the hands or fingers.
Parkinson's is often associated with a resting tremor: the shaking is most noticeable when the affected body part is relaxed.
Not every patient with Parkinson's has a tremor.
Conversely, having a tremor does not automatically mean someone has Parkinson's.
4. Gait and balance problems
As the disease progresses, changes in walking and maintaining balance may occur.
Steps sometimes become smaller, and it can become harder to initiate movement or change direction.
Some patients developfreezing of gait.
This is a sudden, temporary blockage while walking, where the feet feel as if they are stuck to the ground.
These symptoms can increase the risk of falling and limit independent functioning.
What non-motor symptoms can occur?
In addition to the well-known movement problems, Parkinson's can affect various other brain functions.
1. Attention and concentration problems
Some patients notice that processing information takes more time.
It may become more difficult to perform multiple tasks at once, follow conversations, or maintain focus.
Planning, organizing, and responding flexibly to changing circumstances can also become more difficult.
These functions are also known asexecutive functions.
Read more aboutattention and concentration disorders.
2. Memory problems
Memory issues can also occur with Parkinson's.
Sometimes the problem is not so much with storing information, but with efficiently processing or retrieving it.
Changes in attention and cognitive control can also contribute to forgetfulness.
Not every patient develops severe cognitive impairment or dementia.
You can find more information on our page aboutmemory disorders.
3. Sleep disorders and fatigue
Sleep problems occur regularly with Parkinson's.
Some people have trouble staying asleep, move a lot during the night, or experience pronounced daytime fatigue.
REM sleep behavior disorder can also occur, where a person makes movements during dream sleep that are related to the content of the dream.
Sleep issues can be linked to changes in the neurological systems that regulate sleep and wakefulness.
Read more aboutsleep disorders.
4. Anxiety, depression, and motivational issues
Parkinson's can also affect the regulation of emotions and motivation.
Some patients experienceanxiety,depressive symptomsor a lack of initiative.
This may be related to changes in brain networks involved in reward, motivation, and emotion regulation.
The impact of a chronic condition on daily life can also play a role in this.
5. Autonomic and other physical symptoms
Parkinson's can also affect the functioning of the autonomic nervous system.
This can lead to symptoms such as constipation, drops in blood pressure when standing up, bladder issues, or changes in temperature regulation.
Loss of smell and pain can also occur.
The nature and severity of these symptoms vary greatly from person to person.
What happens in the brain with Parkinson's?
Our body's movements are not controlled by a single, isolated brain region.
Various brain networks work together constantly to prepare, initiate, and adjust movements.
An important system is thebasal ganglia-thalamo-cortical network.
Several areas work together in this process:
The basal ganglia
These deep-seated brain nuclei help select and regulate movements.
They influence which movements are executed and which are inhibited.
The thalamus
The thalamus serves as a key relay station between different brain regions.
It helps transmit information between the basal ganglia and the cerebral cortex.
The motor cortex
The motor cortex is involved in controlling voluntary movements.
The supplementary motor area
Thesupplementary motor area(SMA) plays an important role in preparing, organizing, and executing movement sequences.
This area is particularly relevant when movements must be initiated internally, without an external stimulus providing the signal.
In Parkinson's disease, impaired dopamine regulation can disrupt the cooperation between these areas.
As a result, movements become harder to initiate and less fluid.
Parkinson's as a disorder of brain networks
For a long time, Parkinson's was primarily considered a disorder of dopamine and the basal ganglia.
That explanation remains important, but recent research shows that the consequences reach much further.
In February 2026, a major study was published in the scientific journalNaturein which Parkinson's was investigated from the perspective of theSomato-Cognitive Action Network (SCAN).
This network connects brain areas involved in movement with systems responsible for attention, motivation, body regulation, and the organization of behavior.
The researchers analyzed data from 863 participants across various research and treatment groups.
In patients with Parkinson's, they found altered functional connectivity between the SCAN and several deep-seated brain regions.
This is calledfunctional connectivity: the degree to which the activity of different brain regions is correlated.
Notably, successful treatments, including medication and various forms of neuromodulation, were associated with changes in these connections.
In one part of the study, targeted magnetic stimulation of areas within the SCAN proved more effective for motor symptoms than stimulation of classic motor areas.
This finding supports a key neuroscientific insight: Parkinson's cannot be understood solely through individual brain regions, but must also be viewed through the interaction between brain networks.
This provides an important foundation for the further development of network-oriented neuromodulation.
What can brain rhythms tell us about Parkinson's disease?
Our brains are constantly producing electrical activity.
This activity includes rhythmic patterns that can be measured with an electroencephalogram (EEG).
In Parkinson's disease, changes have been described in various frequency bands, including theta and beta activity.
These brain rhythms are associated with communication between brain regions and the regulation of movement.
For example, certain abnormal beta oscillations in the basal ganglia have been linked to slowness of movement and stiffness.
Changes in other frequency bands may also play a role in tremors and motor control.
The significance of these brain rhythms depends on the brain region in which they are measured.
Attention and cognitive control in Parkinson's disease
Research by Hye Bin Yoo,Dirk De Ridder, Barbara Pickut andSven Vannestehas contributed to the understanding of cognitive changes in Parkinson's disease.
In a 2018 study, electrical brain activity and functional connectivity were examined in 36 patients with Parkinson's disease and 36 healthy control subjects.
The researchers found changes in brain networks involved in two forms of attention:
- Top-down attention:consciously focusing attention on a task or goal.
- Bottom-up attention:automatically reacting to important stimuli from the environment.
In patients with Parkinson's, differences were visible in the activity and interconnections of these attention networks.
These findings help explain why concentration and multitasking can become more difficult with Parkinson's.
Moreover, they demonstrate that the neurological changes in Parkinson's are not limited to movement.
How to treat
A treatment that supports various brain functions
Parkinson's is a progressive neurological condition for which there is currently no cure.
However, there are various options available to reduce symptoms and support daily functioning.
Medications that influence the availability or function of dopamine form a key foundation of neurological treatment.
In addition, specialized physical therapy, exercise training, occupational therapy, and speech therapy where necessary play an important role.
For selected patients with advanced Parkinson's, deep brain stimulation (deep brain stimulation, DBS) may also be indicated.
In this treatment, electrodes are placed in specific deep-seated brain regions via a neurosurgical procedure.
DBS can reduce significant motor symptoms in suitable patients, but it is not indicated for everyone.
Non-invasive neuromodulation also offers possibilities for influencing brain networks without surgical intervention.
Neuromodulation for Parkinson's
Neuromodulation is a treatment approach that uses electrical, magnetic, or other forms of stimulation to target and influence the activity of the nervous system.
In Parkinson's disease, various brain networks can serve as targets.
Depending on the symptoms, treatment can be directed at systems involved in:
- Slowness of movement and muscle stiffness.
- Tremor and motor control.
- Initiating and coordinating movements.
- Gait and balance issues.
- Attention, concentration, and cognitive control.
- Certain associated mood or other neurological symptoms.
At BRAI3N, we apply targeted neuromodulation to influence the activity of brain networks involved in these Parkinson's symptoms. With this, we aim to reduce symptoms and support daily functioning.
Neuromodulation is used as a supplement to existing neurological treatment and specialized rehabilitation.
What does scientific research show?
In recent years, several important studies have been published on non-invasive neuromodulation for Parkinson's.
These studies show that certain forms of stimulation can not only change the activity of brain networks but can also lead to improvements in motor functions in selected patients.
Neuromodulation of the supplementary motor area
In 2025,Brain Stimulation a systematic review and meta-analysis of non-invasive stimulation of the supplementary motor area (SMA).
The researchers analyzed twenty randomized clinical trials involving a total of 442 patients.
The pooled results showed that stimulation of the SMA was associated with a significant improvement in motor functions, as measured by the motor sections of the Unified Parkinson's Disease Rating Scale.
The results with transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) were particularly favorable.
The study supports the SMA as an important target for neuromodulation in Parkinson's disease.
Electrical stimulation and brain rhythms
In a 2025 randomized study published in Cell Reports Medicine, researchers investigated 60 patients with Parkinson's disease.
They compared different forms of transcranial electrical stimulation (tES) with sham stimulation.
The treatment was targeted at the motor cortex.
The researchers found that transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) and transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS) could alter specific patterns of electrical brain activity.
These changes were associated with improvements in certain motor symptoms, including rigidity and bradykinesia.
With tDCS, a beneficial effect on tremor was also observed.
This study is interesting because it demonstrates a link between targeted changes in brain activity and changes in motor symptoms.
Neuromodulation combined with rehabilitation
Another important line of research focuses on the combination of neuromodulation and active rehabilitation.
A 2024 systematic review examined 23 studies on the effect of tDCS, either alone or combined with rehabilitation, on gait and balance in Parkinson's disease.
The researchers found improvements across various components of gait and balance assessments.
The results support the principle that neuromodulation can be combined with targeted movement training to support motor functions.
Other review studies also emphasize the importance of neuroplasticity: the brain's ability to adapt its activity and connections under the influence of training and stimulation.
Neuromodulation for cognitive complaints
Parkinson's can also affect brain networks involved in attention, memory, and executive functions.
Therefore, neuromodulation is being researched not only for motor symptoms but also for supporting cognitive functions.
A large network meta-analysis from 2026 examined 41 randomized studies with a total of 1,957 participants.
The analysis included patients with Parkinson's, Alzheimer's, and stroke.
The researchers found evidence that certain forms of non-invasive neuromodulation can improve cognitive performance and daily activities.
Stimulation of frontoparietal brain networks, in particular, emerged as an interesting approach.
However, the results vary between the neurological conditions studied and cannot be automatically applied to every patient with Parkinson's.
A separate meta-analysis that exclusively examined cognitive complaints in Parkinson's found no significant average benefit of TMS or tDCS compared to a placebo.
That is why, for cognitive complaints, we focus on clearly defined individual treatment goals, with systematic monitoring of the effect.
Occipital nerve stimulation and cognitive functions
Peripheral nerve stimulation also represents an interesting line of research.
One of the areas being studied in this regard is the greater occipital nerve (nervus occipitalis major).
This nerve is connected via the central nervous system to systems involved in attention and memory.
A possible explanation for certain effects of occipital nerve stimulation is the influence on the locus coeruleus, a brainstem nucleus that plays an important role in attention, alertness, and the regulation of norepinephrine.
In 2026, Liam Kennedy, Elva Arulchelvan, Sven Vanneste, and Iracema Leroi published a study on occipital nerve stimulation in people with Parkinson's and mild cognitive impairment.
This study showed that the treatment was feasible and well-tolerated in a small group of participants.
It therefore offers a starting point for further clinical applications, but did not yet establish improvement in cognitive functions as a proven treatment outcome.
The possibilities of targeted neuromodulation
Recent developments in neuroscience show that various brain networks in Parkinson's disease can be therapeutically influenced.
In addition to electrical and magnetic stimulation, new techniques are also being investigated, including low-intensity transcranial focused ultrasound (transcranial focused ultrasound, tFUS).
This technique uses focused sound waves to influence the activity of specific brain regions.
This creates an additional opportunity to reach deeper structures within the nervous system as well.
The choice of a neuromodulation treatment depends on the brain networks involved, the primary symptoms, and the available clinical evidence.
Not every technique has the same proven efficacy or is applied for the same indications.
How does BRAI3N approach Parkinson's?
At BRAI3N, we use a network-oriented approach to neurological conditions.
We look beyond the Parkinson's diagnosis, focusing primarily on which functions have the greatest impact on daily life.
For one patient, slowness of movement and stiffness may be the primary concerns. For another, it may be issues with concentration, fatigue, mood, or other non-motor symptoms.
Based on the clinical evaluation, we determine which brain networks could serve as relevant targets for neuromodulation.
Where appropriate, we coordinate treatment with existing neurological care and rehabilitation.
Our goal is not to cure Parkinson's disease itself, but to use targeted neuromodulation to influence specific symptoms and support daily functioning as effectively as possible.
Inspired by Science, driven by care.
The BRAI3N treatment process
1. Assessment
During an initial evaluation, we will discuss your symptoms, medical history, and current neurological treatment.
In doing so, we focus on:
- Slowness of movement, tremors, and muscle stiffness.
- Gait and balance problems.
- Attention, concentration, and memory.
- Sleep quality and fatigue.
- Anxiety, mood, and motivation.
- Medication use and any fluctuations in the effectiveness of that medication.
- The impact of your symptoms on your daily functioning.
Where relevant, existing neurological examinations and cognitive tests can be incorporated.
AnqEEG measurement and analysisprovides additional information about electrical brain activity but does not replace a neurological diagnosis and cannot independently determine which neuromodulation treatment will yield the best results.
2. Targeted treatment
Based on the clinical evaluation, we will determine which symptoms to prioritize.
When neuromodulation is indicated, we choose a treatment approach that aligns with the affected brain functions.
Where appropriate, the treatment can be combined with existing medication, motor rehabilitation, or cognitive training.
3. Stabilization
During the treatment process, we monitor how your symptoms and daily functioning evolve.
For example, we look at changes in movement, stiffness, tremor, concentration, mental resilience, and other pre-determined treatment goals.
Because Parkinson's symptoms can vary depending on the time of day and medication, we take this into account during our evaluation.
Based on the results, the treatment can be adjusted.
4. Maintenance
When improvement occurs, we look at how to maintain it as effectively as possible.
Ongoing neurological follow-up, medication, exercise training, and other forms of rehabilitation remain important in this process.
Not every patient requires the same treatment or a maintenance plan.
Can neuromodulation help with Parkinson's?
Do you have Parkinson's disease and are you still experiencing symptoms that affect your daily life despite your current treatment?
If so, it may be worth exploring whether targeted neuromodulation offers an additional treatment option.
BRAI3N offers a unique combination of science and care.
Through close collaboration between neuroscientists and clinicians, scientific insights are carefully translated into clinical practice.
Contact us for a no-obligation consultation or to schedule an appointment
Scientific Background
Parkinson’s disease as a somato-cognitive action network disorder
Ren J, Zhang W, Dahmani L, et al.Nature. 2026;651:1030–1039.
Koirala N, Bange M, Wagle Shukla A, Muthuraman M.npj Parkinson's Disease. 2025;11:221.
Liu J, Zhu Y, Chen B, Meng Q, Hu P, Chen X, et al.Cell Reports Medicine. 2025;6:102044.
Chen Y, Jiang H, Wei Y, Ye S, Jiang J, Mak MKY, et al.Brain Stimulation. 2025;18:1–14.
Nguyen TXD, Mai PT, Chang YJ, Hsieh TH.Journal of NeuroEngineering and Rehabilitation. 2024;21:27.
Wang C, Chen H, Liu M, Lu W, Hao Z, Wang B. Journal of NeuroEngineering and Rehabilitation. 2026;23:46.
Giustiniani A, Maistrello L, Mologni V, Danesin L, Burgio F. Neurological Sciences. 2025;46(2):579–592.
The Functional Alterations in Top-Down Attention Streams of Parkinson’s disease Measured by EEG
Yoo HB, de la Concha EO, De Ridder D, Pickut BA, Vanneste S. Scientific Reports. 2018;8:10609.
Kennedy L, Sanagavaram A, Arulchelvan E, Vanneste S, Leroi I.HRB Open Research. 2026;8:124. Version 2.
Pickut BA, Van Hecke W, Kerckhofs E, Mariën P, Vanneste S, Cras P, et al.Clinical Neurology and Neurosurgery. 2013;115(12):2419–2425.
Mindfulness Training among Individuals with Parkinson’s Disease: Neurobehavioral Effects
Pickut B, Vanneste S, Hirsch MA, Van Hecke W, Kerckhofs E, Mariën P, et al.Parkinson's Disease. 2015;2015:816404.
Vucic S, Chen KHS, Kiernan MC, Hallett M, Benninger D, Di Lazzaro V, et al.Clinical Neurophysiology. 2023;150:131–175.
Neuromodulation techniques – From non-invasive brain stimulation to deep brain stimulation
Davidson B, Bhattacharya A, Sarica C, Darmani G, Raies N, Chen R, et al.Neurotherapeutics. 2024;21.
Evancho A, Tyler WJ, McGregor K.Frontiers in Human Neuroscience. 2023;17:1151218.
A review of functional neuromodulation in humans using low-intensity transcranial focused ultrasound
Lee K, Park TY, Lee W, Kim H.Biomedical Engineering Letters. 2024;14:407–438.
Authored by Prof. Dr. Sven Vanneste, Prof. Dr. Dirk De Ridder and Jan Ost - 20/10/2026
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